Byzantine geographers achieved success: they skillfully drew maps of the country and seas, plans of city blocks and buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. At the beginning of this stage, scientific creativity did not freeze in Byzantium. In the 4th century. Prominent mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology, as well as optics worked here. There were significant advances in medicine. Doctor Oribasius(326-403) compiled a medical encyclopedia, which included 70 books. It contained extensive extracts from the works of ancient physicians, as well as the author’s own conclusions and generalizations.

After Christianity was established as the state religion, the best representatives of science began to be persecuted. Hypatia died, and Oribasius managed to escape with difficulty. Destroyed scientific centers: in 489, at the insistence of the bishops, the school in Ephesus was closed, in 529 - the school in Athens - one of the largest centers of Greek education. At the end of the 4th century. Fanatic monks destroyed a significant part of the Library of Alexandria. At the same time, to spread Christianity, church theological schools, and higher ones at that, were created.

With the affirmation of the positions of the church, science becomes theological, which is especially evident in the area natural sciences. In the middle of the 6th century. monk Kosma Indicoplov wrote "Christian Topography" in which he recognized the Ptolemaic system as incorrect and contrary to the Bible. According to Cosmas, the shape of the Earth is a flat quadrangle, surrounded by an ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is located. This work was distributed not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, as well as in Ancient Rus'.

In the VI-VII centuries. In Byzantium, alchemy dominated, searching for the “divine elixir”, with the help of which it is possible to turn any metals into gold, cure various diseases, and restore youth. At the same time, the chemical craft developed - the production of paints for painting and dyeing fabrics, ceramics, mosaics and enamels, which were widely used in the Byzantine fine arts and fabric production.

Despite the lack of sources, it is known that already at the end of the 7th century. the Byzantines invented "Greek fire" - an incendiary mixture of gunpowder, tar and saltpeter, which had the ability to burn on water. This helped the Byzantines defeat their enemies in naval battles. "Greek fire" was widely used during the siege of fortresses in the 7th-15th centuries. Byzantine scholar Leo Mathematician improved the light telegraph. Doctor Nikita compiled a collection on surgery (9th century). There were a number of historical works in which the social struggle of this period was reflected from the position of the ruling class.

In the 9th century. In Constantinople, the highest secular school, closed in the 7th century, was restored.

Throughout its history, Byzantium was a multi-ethnic state. Byzantine culture combined the achievements of many peoples who inhabited it (Greeks, Syrians, Romans, Copts, Armenians, Georgians, Cilicians, Thracians, Cappadocians, Dacians, Slavs, Cumans, Arabs, etc.). However, the Byzantines did not limit themselves to simply assimilating the knowledge acquired in previous centuries, and in a number of areas they took certain steps forward.

Particular attention was paid to those areas of knowledge that were closely related to practice, primarily medicine, agricultural production, construction, and navigation. At the same time, the basis of all sciences was not ancient philosophy, but theology. Establishing itself on the ruins of the ancient world, Christianity in Byzantium supplanted the life-affirming pagan religion of the Greeks.

For a long time, paganism existed alongside Christianity. Many major church figures of Byzantium in the 4th-5th centuries. studied in pagan schools and subsequently actively fought against some of the prejudices of Christians against Greco-Roman ancient literature. Thus, the prominent theologian and bishop of Caesarea of Cappadocia, Basil the Great (c. 330-379), was educated at the highest pagan school in Athens. In his writings, he spoke with great respect about the ancient cultural heritage and convincingly argued that ancient literature in many ways anticipated the advent of Christianity. Moreover, Basil the Great and other early Christian writers pointed out the need for Christians to receive secular education: in their opinion, it would contribute to a better understanding of the “Scriptures” and its interpretation using the techniques and means of ancient education. Calling themselves Romans, and their empire - Romean, the Christian Byzantines were proud of the fact that they preserved cultural heritage Hellas and Rome - so powerful was the historical inertia of the ancient world. However, only that which contributed to the strengthening of Christianity was selected from the ancient heritage. In the field of natural science, the main data were drawn from the works of Aristotle (“Physics”, “History of Animals”, “On the Parts of Animals”, “On the Movement of Animals”, “On the Soul”, etc.). All of them were repeatedly commented on by early Byzantine authors in order to make them accessible to the reading public.

The so-called “Six Days”, based on the biblical tale of the creation of the world in six days, became a kind of encyclopedia of natural science in the early Byzantine period. The main goal of the “Conversations on the Six Days” was to present the Christian teaching about the structure of the Universe and to refute the physical theories of antiquity. The most famous were the “Six Days” of Basil the Great and George Pisida. Engaging in the development of philosophical and theological problems and polemicizing with ancient writers, they borrowed from antiquity a variety of information on natural science, both real (about plants, birds, fish, reptiles, land animals, etc.) and fantastic (about sacred geese, virgin birth of offspring from a kite and a silkworm caterpillar - the thesis of the immaculate conception, etc.).

Valuable information about the animal world of Egypt, Ethiopia, Arabia, Ceylon and India is contained in the XI book of “Christian Topography” (c. 549) by Cosmas Indicopleus (i.e., “The Navigator to India”). Along with this, it stated that the Earth is a plane, surrounded by an ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is located.

Having become the ideology of the Middle Ages, Christianity had a decisive influence on social and political processes. State doctrine of glorifying the Christian monarchy and cult Byzantine Emperor as the heads of everything Christendom had a huge influence on the entire social and ideological life of Byzantium (ideology, culture, philosophy, history, literature, art and various fields of knowledge, including medicine).

Introduction

The Middle Ages usually mean the period from the decline of ancient culture (in the 5th century) to the Renaissance, which is about 10 centuries. In the history of Europe, this period is called nothing less than “dark,” meaning the general decline of civilization, the collapse of the Roman Empire, the invasion of barbarians, and the penetration of religion into all spheres of spiritual culture. But the strengthening of the role of religion in the life of society is rather not the cause of “darkness”, but its consequence and, moreover, a means of protecting humanity from degradation. Christianity, which arose in the 1st century, and later Islam, created harmony in society and was a powerful stabilizing factor. Churches and monasteries provided the necessary level of literacy and education. Reading and copying learned books was a mandatory activity in monasteries. Monastic libraries of significant volume were created there, preserving the scientific heritage. Monasteries exchanged handwritten books, learned monks not only commented on the texts of ancient manuscripts, but also generalized knowledge, brought together the works of various scientists scientific schools and directions. Religious education presupposed high morality, the formation of ideals of goodness and justice.

Science of Byzantium

Christianity was born of the corruption of the Roman Empire and the injustice that reigned there. Originating among the common people, Christianity relatively quickly took possession of the minds of the educated progressives. statesmen. Constantine the Great issued the Edict of Milan on Tolerance in 313, according to which Christians were able to openly practice their faith. Abandoning paganism, the emperor moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium. Soon, in 325, the Roman Empire was divided into two parts: western and eastern, with the capitals Rome and Byzantium. Each part of the former unified empire was ruled by its own emperor. Byzantium was later renamed Constantinople in honor of Constantine the Great. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476 AD, when its last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by the troops of the Germanic tribe of Sciri. The Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium existed for about a thousand years.

Already in the 3rd century, the Christian Church was a centralized system with supreme control and was a powerful and influential political organization, which since the time of Constantine has become a stronghold state power. Byzantium existed as a Christian empire, the only one capable of preserving the heritage of antiquity. Constantinople was the last fortress of civilization. The libraries of his monasteries contained the poems of Homer and the works of Aristotle. In the middle of the 9th century, under the leadership of Bishop Leo (beginning of the 9th century - 869), nicknamed the Mathematician, a higher school was opened in the Magnava Palace. The Magnava school collected ancient books kept in monasteries. Monk Photius compiled a collection with retellings and commentaries of 280 ancient manuscripts. For his learning, Photius was awarded the rank of patriarch, and Emperor Basil entrusted him with raising his son. Leo the Mathematician, in his works on mechanics and mathematics, was the first to use letters as mathematical symbols, thereby coming close to the foundation of algebra. Mathematical knowledge was used by the Byzantines in practice, in particular during the construction of an outstanding structure - the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. The architecture of the temple and its mosaics testify to the flowering of the arts and the perfection of technology in Byzantium in the 6th century.

Byzantium's extensive trade relations reached China, India, and Ceylon. Curious Byzantine travelers acquired knowledge of geography, zoology, and the history of countries little known in Europe. Such researchers include Cosmas Indicoleft, the author of “Christian Topography” (VI century). In the field of cosmology, the Ptolemaic system of the world had the greatest influence, although there were attempts to return to earlier ideas about the flat shape of the Earth. Chemical knowledge was used in craft production and in pharmacology. In general, we know very little about the scientific and technical achievements of Byzantium. This is explained by the defeats, robberies, and destruction of scientific and cultural monuments that were the result of the invasion of the external enemies of Byzantium.

Another history of science. From Aristotle to Newton Kalyuzhny Dmitry Vitalievich

Secular science of Byzantium

Merchants and science

Usually firstfruits scientific research appear where an already organized priestly class has formed, which has enough time and opportunity to engage in this matter. However, the first steps often turn out to be the last due to the fact that the acquired scientific theories, having merged inextricably with religious positions, freeze along with them, turning into lifeless dogmas.

However, along with priestly knowledge, secular knowledge, independent of the church, also begins to be developed. The lack of resources and the need to manage a huge empire should have greatly contributed to the development of Byzantine navigation, and this in turn boosted trade and set an unusually rapid pace of colonization of the coasts of the Black and Black Sea. Mediterranean seas. The most important role in this colonization process fell to the lot of Miletus: this Asia Minor city had the role of one of the main intermediary centers.

Due to a certain religious disorder of early Byzantium, different knowledge managed to develop here; it began to ossify only as a unified religious doctrine was established. The same thing happened among the Arabs: all their successes occurred during the formation of Islam. The same can be observed in Western Europe, with the only difference that after a period of “ossification” came “emancipation”: for the merchant and industrialist it was important to obtain the desired scientific result, and how it relates to the dogmas of the church is a second question. Money turned out to be more important than God.

The original Byzantine traders, due to their profession, had to see and take into account a lot of things in their travels. They observed a lot of different ways of life, customs, beliefs, etc., and this forced them to free themselves from many traditional ideas about the world. From different nations they adopted knowledge useful to themselves and accumulated it.

These were completely different people than the traditional custodians of knowledge - the clergy, who usually monopolized it. The merchants, of course, also did not share everything they learned with others, but still their knowledge was more accessible to many.

From the systematization of diverse information received from all over the earth, Byzantine science and the scientific worldview were born. The birthplace of new ideas was precisely Asia Minor (mainly Miletus), where trade took the strongest and most ramified roots. Only later did priority shift to the Alexandrians.

The main opponents of a rational scientific worldview, supporters of mysticism and theosophical speculation were grouped in territories where agriculture was the economic basis. These teachings represented a kind of reworking of old religious beliefs, slightly brought into line with changing social conditions. The vague theosophical mysticism was the exact opposite of the logical transparency and rational clarity of the theories created in the trading cities.

Ancient physics is almost exclusively the physics of the Byzantines. The emergence of physics means overcoming religious and mystical views and coming to the idea of a natural pattern of phenomena. But when discussing the merits of the Byzantines in the field of physics, we should not forget that we are dealing here with the beginning of science, otherwise our judgment will be erroneous. There is a whole gulf between their physics and ours, not so much in terms of the material, but in the way it is processed. And yet it is remarkable that already in the Hellenic period we find all the special branches of physics developed to a certain extent, or at least outlined.

In the first place were discussions about general properties matter. Then, mechanics and optics. Next, acoustics and the study of heat. Regarding magnetism and electricity, they knew at least the fact of the attraction of magnetic ore and rubbed amber.

Only their method of research is not at all what we now call physical in the proper sense of the word.

The development of large spaces, the appearance of the starry sky, the change of seasons, atmospheric phenomena, the whole complex of the mysterious life of organic nature stimulated the early Byzantines to seek explanations for all natural phenomena and try to discover a natural connection between them.

They sought their goal in two ways. Or they tried to give general laws from which the natural pattern of phenomena can be deduced with logical consistency - this is a method of natural philosophy that survived until the 16th century and was called Aristotelian physics. Or they tried to understand the properties of complex phenomena using mathematical deduction, taking as the starting point simple and not requiring proof statements - this is the method of mathematical physics, the main representative of which is Archimedes.

The theoretical constructions were based on various observations. But if this was quite sufficient for astronomy, then for a correct understanding of physical laws it was necessary to develop experimental methods. Studying physical phenomena, the Hellenes never thought about a reliable way to reproduce them, did not take the trouble to verify their conclusions with new observations, and did not try to dissect complex phenomena through experiments in order to find a basis for their explanations. In short, experimental research is what separates modern physics, which emerged in the 17th century, from its predecessors.

So, the first physicists were Byzantine natural philosophers who tried to solve the old problem of the origin of the world and the changes taking place in it not by attracting supernatural forces, but using rational explanations. This was the right way. But the attempt to find the beginning of all things and thereby obtain answers to all questions was erroneous, although very attractive. Despite numerous failures, even today there are still those who want to get all the answers by finding the primary elements and fundamental principles and constructing everything else using logical constructions. For science, this tempting goal brought benefits on the one hand, arousing a keen interest in nature, but on the other hand, it also brought harm.

The Byzantines of the Hellenic times put forward so many different hypotheses that they almost exhausted all conceivable theories to explain the Universe, so that our modern hypotheses can only be considered a continuation (or repetition) of their works.

Today, many historians of science, like a bad student, knowing the answer, tries to adjust the course of the solution to it, trying to reconstruct the path of science as a struggle between the “correct” scientific direction and various “erroneous” ones. But this is just stupidity. In those days, all ideas were equally speculative, and the advantage was determined by the authority of the one who expressed it, or the authority of the references with which the expresser substantiated his views. Hence such a huge number of works by Aristotle, Archimedes, Plato and others: many attributed their own thoughts to them, and then commented on them, and they remained in the history of science under the guise of “commentators” of some “classic”.

Science is always aristocratic. Antiquity had no concept of popular physics. For the mass of people, the Earth, contrary to Pythagoras, has always remained a motionless flat disk; Aristarchus did not open the crystal firmament for ochlos, and the old deities of nature were not cast down from their altars physical forces. Where the people come into contact with mental greatness, they see one miracle, and superstitious legend turns in their eyes a physicist into a sorcerer, a philosopher into a soothsayer.

The masses look for miracles or entertainment in science. Cunning and unscrupulous people know how to turn such expectations to their advantage and captivate the crowd the more easily the less they know the true face of science. So little by little, from the weak beginnings of the sciences, astrology and astronomy developed; chemistry and alchemy. Even magic turned into a systematic “science”!.. The imaginary sciences, however, reached their full flowering only in the Middle Ages.

The ideal of physics is the combination of experimental research, mathematics and a style of thinking. The interaction of these three factors determines its successes in recent centuries. Where one or another method prevails over the others, stagnation is always noticed in development sooner or later. But when these three factors are combined in the proper proportion in one person, a genius appears, beginning a new era in the history of science.

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1. Development of education. Pupils at school In the 8th century, when Byzantium's possessions declined, Greek became state language empires. The state needed well-trained officials. Often educated people reached high positions, and with them came power and wealth. Even among peasants and artisans there were literate people. Byzantine alphabet

1. Development of education. Along with church schools, public and private schools were opened in cities. In the 9th century, a higher school was opened in Constantinople, at the imperial palace. It taught religion, mythology, history, geography, and literature. IN higher school

2. Scientific knowledge. Manuscript. The Byzantines preserved ancient knowledge of mathematics and used it to calculate tax amounts, in astronomy, and in construction. They also widely used the inventions and writings of great Arab medical scientists, philosophers and others. Through the Greeks, Western Europe learned about these works. In Byzantium itself there were many scientists and creative people. Leo the Mathematician (9th century) invented sound signaling for transmitting messages over a distance, automatic devices in the throne room of the imperial palace, driven by water, they were supposed to capture the imagination of foreign ambassadors. Leo Mathematician

2. Scientific knowledge. The development of crafts and medicine gave impetus to the study of chemistry; Ancient recipes for making glass, paints, and medicines were preserved. “Greek fire” was invented, an incendiary mixture of oil and tar that cannot be extinguished with water. With the help of “Greek fire,” the Byzantines won many victories in battles at sea and on land. Greek fire Compiled teaching aids in medicine. To teach the art of medicine, in the 11th century, a medical school (the first in Europe) was created at the hospital of one of the monasteries in Constantinople. Surgical instruments

2. Scientific knowledge. The Byzantines accumulated a lot of knowledge in geography. They knew how to draw maps and city plans. Merchants and travelers wrote descriptions different countries and peoples. Byzantine historian History developed especially successfully in Byzantium. Bright, interesting essays historians were created on the basis of documents, eyewitness accounts, and personal observations. World view

3. Architecture. The Christian religion changed the purpose and structure of the temple. In an ancient Greek temple, a statue of the god was placed inside, and religious ceremonies were held outside in the square. Christians gathered for common prayer inside the church, and the architects cared about the beauty of not only the external, but also its internal premises. Altar

3. Architecture. The Christian church's plan was divided into three parts: a vestibule at the western, main entrance; nave (ship in French) the elongated main part of the temple where believers gathered for prayer; an altar where only clergy could enter. With its apses and semicircular vaulted niches that protruded outward, the altar faced the east, where, according to Christian beliefs, the center of the earth, Jerusalem, is located. nave narthex altar apse

3. Architecture. A remarkable work of Byzantine architecture was the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Temple of Hagia Sophia Temple of Hagia Sophia Justinian did not skimp on expenses: he wanted to make this temple the main and largest church of the entire Christian world. Justinian did not skimp on expenses: he wanted to make this temple the main and largest church of the entire Christian world. The temple was built by 10 thousand people over five years. Its construction was supervised by famous architects and decorated by the best artisans. The temple was built by 10 thousand people over five years. Its construction was supervised by famous architects and decorated by the best artisans. The Church of Hagia Sophia was called “a miracle of miracles” and was sung in verse. Inside it amazed with its size and beauty. Reconstruction and internal view Hagia Sophia

3. Architecture. IN XXI centuries instead of an elongated rectangular building, a cross-domed church was established. In plan it looked like a cross with a dome in the middle, mounted on a round drum. The temple looked lighter, directed upward. To decorate its exterior, they used multi-colored stone, brick patterns, and alternated layers of red brick and white mortar.

4. Painting. Mosaic In Byzantium, earlier than in Western Europe, the walls of temples and palaces began to be decorated with mosaics with images made of multi-colored stones or pieces of colored opaque smalt glass. Later, the walls began to be decorated with frescoes, paintings painted with water paints on wet plaster. In the design of temples, a canon of strict rules for the depiction and placement of biblical scenes has developed. The temple was a model of the world. The more important the image was, the higher it was placed in the temple. Fresco

4. Painting. The eyes and thoughts of those entering the church turned primarily to the dome: it was represented as the heavenly vault of the abode of the deity. Therefore, a mosaic or fresco depicting Christ surrounded by angels was often placed in the dome. From the dome the gaze moved to the upper part of the wall above the altar, where the figure of the Mother of God reminded us of the connection between God and man.

4. Painting. On the upper parts of the walls, artists unfolded episodes from the earthly life of Christ in the order as they are described in the Gospels. Below were depicted those whose activities are connected with Christ: prophets (messengers of God) who predicted his coming; the apostles are his disciples and followers; martyrs who suffered for the sake of faith; saints who spread the teachings of Christ; kings as his earthly governors. In the western part of the temple, pictures of hell or the Last Judgment after the second coming of Christ were often placed above the entrance. Martyrs and martyrs

4. Painting. One of the most revered icons, “Our Lady of Vladimir,” was brought to Rus' from Byzantium. It is no coincidence that paintings, icons and frescoes, and sculptures of churches were called the “Bible for the illiterate.” It is no coincidence that paintings, icons and frescoes, and sculptures of churches were called the “Bible for the illiterate.” Only church images and sermons of priests introduced ordinary people to the content of Christianity. Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God. Beginning of the 12th century. Constantinople.

5. Cultural connections of Byzantium. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Byzantium was the most cultural country in Europe. Kings, princes, bishops of other countries, and most of all Italy, invited architects, artists and jewelers from Byzantium. Inquisitive young men went to Constantinople to study mathematics, medicine, and Roman laws. Inquisitive young men went to Constantinople to study mathematics, medicine, and Roman laws. Architects and artists studied with Byzantine masters European countries. Byzantine style temple in Georgia

5. Cultural connections of Byzantium. Byzantine culture had a particularly strong influence on the culture of the Slavs. Bulgaria, Serbia and Rus' adopted the Christian faith from Byzantium. The Slavic alphabet was brought to Rus' by the Bulgarians who studied with the Greeks. In Byzantium, many manuscripts of Greek, Roman and Eastern scientists and writers were preserved and thanks to this have come to us. Cyril and Methodius Glagolitic and Cyrillic